Diabetes is a chronic (long term) condition marked by abnormally high levels of sugar (glucose) in the blood. People with diabetes either do not produce enough insulin, a hormone that is needed to convert sugar, starches, and other food into energy needed for daily life, or cannot use the insulin that their bodies produce. As a result, glucose builds up in the bloodstream. If left untreated, diabetes can lead to blindness, kidney disease, nerve disease, heart disease, and stroke.
According to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), diabetes affects 25.8 million Americans.
While an estimated 18.8 million have been diagnosed with diabetes (both type 1 and type 2), unfortunately, 7 million people (or nearly one third) are unaware that they have type 2 diabetes.
Diabetes is widely recognized as one of the leading causes of death and disability in the United States. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recognize diabetes as the 7th leading cause of death in the U.S.
There are 2 major types of diabetes:
Pre-diabetes occurs in those individuals with blood glucose levels that are higher than normal but not high enough for a diabetes diagnosis. This condition raises the risk of developing type 2 diabetes, stroke, and heart disease. In fact, people with diabetes are 2 to 4 times more likely than non-diabetic people to develop heart disease. Pre-diabetes is also called impaired fasting glucose (IFG), impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), or insulin resistance. Some people have both IFG and IGT. In IFG, glucose levels are a little high several hours after a person eats. In IGT, glucose levels are a little higher than normal right after eating. Pre-diabetes is becoming more common in the U.S., according to estimates provided by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). Many individuals with pre-diabetes go on to develop type 2 diabetes within 10 years.
Gestational diabetes is high blood glucose that develops at any time during pregnancy in a woman who does not have diabetes. Four percent of all pregnant women develop gestational diabetes. Although it usually disappears after delivery, the mother is at increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life.
Diabetes may also be associated with genetic syndromes, surgery, drugs, malnutrition, infections, and other illnesses.
Type 1: Type 1 diabetes can occur at any age, but usually starts in people younger than 30. Symptoms are usually severe and occur rapidly. They include:
Type 2: People with type 2 diabetes often have no symptoms, and their condition is detected only when a routine exam reveals high levels of glucose in their blood. Occasionally, however, a person with type 2 diabetes may experience symptoms listed below, which tend to appear slowly over time:
In some cases, symptoms may mimic type 1 diabetes and appear more abruptly, such as:
Both type 1 and type 2 diabetes are caused by the absence, insufficient production, or lack of response by cells in the body to the hormone insulin. Insulin is a key regulator of the body's metabolism. After meals, food is digested in the stomach and intestines. Sugar (glucose) molecules are absorbed directly into the bloodstream, and blood glucose levels rise. Under normal circumstances, the rise in blood glucose levels signals specific cells in the pancreas, called beta cells, to secrete insulin into the bloodstream. Insulin, in turn, enables glucose to enter cells in the body that may be burned for energy or stored for future use.
In type 1 diabetes, the beta cells of the pancreas produce little or no insulin, the hormone that allows glucose to enter body cells. Once glucose enters a cell, it is used as fuel. Without adequate insulin, glucose builds up in the bloodstream instead of going into the cells. The body is unable to use this glucose for energy despite high levels in the bloodstream, leading to increased hunger.
In addition, the high levels of glucose in the blood cause the patient to urinate more, which leads to excessive thirst. Within 5 to 10 years after diagnosis, the insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas are completely destroyed, and no more insulin is produced.
The exact cause of type 1 diabetes is not known. Each year more than 13,000 young people are diagnosed with type 1 diabetes. New cases are less common among adults older than 20.
Type 2 diabetes usually develops in older, overweight individuals who become resistant to the effects of insulin over time. When type 2 diabetes is diagnosed, the pancreas is usually producing enough insulin but, for unknown reasons, the body cannot use the insulin effectively. This is called insulin resistance. This means that the insulin produced by your pancreas cannot connect with fat and muscle cells to let glucose inside and produce energy. This causes hyperglycemia (high blood glucose). To compensate, the pancreas produces more insulin. The cells sense this flood of insulin and become even more resistant, resulting in a vicious cycle of high glucose levels and often high insulin levels.
Inflammation is also common among those with type 2 diabetes. Inflammatory markers (chemicals in the body that lead to inflammation), such as interleukin-6 (Il-6) and C-reactive protein, have been found to be increased in those with type 2 diabetes.
Type 2 diabetes usually occurs gradually. Most people with type 2 diabetes are overweight at the time of diagnosis. However, the disease can also develop in lean people, especially the elderly.
Type 1 diabetes
Type 2 diabetes
According to the American Diabetes Association, all pregnant women should be screened for gestational diabetes during their third trimester. People who are 45 years or older should have their blood glucose levels checked every 3 years. Those who have a high risk of developing diabetes (such as people with a family history of the disease) should be tested more often.
Different types of tests are used to diagnose diabetes: Random plasma glucose level, fasting plasma glucose level, and oral glucose tolerance test.
If the fasting glucose level is 100 to 125 mg/dL, the individual has a form of pre-diabetes called impaired fasting glucose (IFG), meaning that the individual is more likely to develop type 2 diabetes but does not have the condition yet. A level of 126 mg/dL or above, confirmed by repeating the test on another day, means that the individual has diabetes.
Other diagnostic tests for diabetes include fructosamine testing and hemoglobin A1c. The American Diabetes Association (ADA) recommends A1c as the best test to find out if an individual's blood sugar is under control over time. The test should be performed every 3 months for insulin-treated patients, during treatment changes, or when blood glucose is elevated. For stable patients on oral agents, health care professionals recommended testing A1c at least twice per year. The ADA currently recommends an A1c goal of less than 7%. Studies have reported that there is a 10% decrease in relative risk of microvascular complications (injuries to the small blood vessels throughout the body), such as diabetic nephropathy (kidney disease) or diabetic neuropathy (nerve damage), for every 1% reduction in hemoglobin A1c. Many nutritionally-oriented physicians look for a much lower A1c as the goal for their patients.
People with diabetes must closely monitor their blood sugar and see their doctor regularly. Self monitoring of blood glucose is done by checking the glucose content of a drop of blood. Regular testing tells you how well diet, medication, and exercise are working together to control your diabetes. Dieticians can also be an integral part of care.
Type 1 diabetes
There is no proven way to prevent type 1 diabetes. However, research conducted in Finland suggests that adequate amounts of vitamin D, particularly in the first year of life, may decrease one's chances of developing type 1 diabetes within the first 30 years of life. In northern Finland (where the annual exposure to sunlight is very limited) researchers followed 10,000 infants for up to 30 years. Those given at least 2,000 IU of vitamin D per day (generally from cod liver oil) for the first year of life were significantly less likely to develop type 1 diabetes over 30 years than infants who were given less than that. Other studies have confirmed that doses of 2,000 IU or higher of vitamin D may have a strong protective effect against type 1 diabetes. For this reason, caretakers of infants and children at increased risk for type 1 diabetes might wish to consider supplementation. Experts suggest supplementing these individuals at the high end of current U.S. recommendations for vitamin D, which is 200 to 1,000 IU.
Type 2 diabetes
Considerable evidence from population based studies suggests that type 2 diabetes is highly preventable, particularly through exercise and weight management. Individuals who are physically inactive or overweight are much more likely to develop type 2 diabetes. Similarly, people who move from a non-Westernized country to a Westernized country (such as the United States, where more people are overweight and live sedentary lives) increase their risk for type 2 diabetes. Studies suggest that you do not need vigorous physical activity to lower your risk of diabetes; moderate, regular exercise, such as walking for 30 minutes most days of the week, is enough. In general, lifestyle changes recommended to treat diabetes may help prevent the condition as well.
The goal of diabetes treatment is to achieve and maintain healthy blood glucose levels. A major study called the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) found that people with diabetes who kept their blood glucose levels close to normal reduced their risk of developing major complications from the condition.
People with diabetes can use the following therapies to help manage their blood glucose levels and to prevent complications:
Lifestyle
People with diabetes can improve significantly from lifestyle changes, particularly diet and exercise. People with type 2 diabetes may even eliminate the need for medications when they make appropriate lifestyle changes.
Diet
The ADA recommends that people with diabetes consume a healthy, low-fat diet, rich in grains, fruits, and vegetables. A healthy diet typically includes 10 to 20% of daily calories from protein, such as poultry, fish, dairy, and vegetable sources. People with diabetes who also have kidney disease should work with their health care providers to limit protein intake to 10% of daily calories. A low-fat diet typically includes 30% or less of daily calories from fat, less than 10% from saturated fats and up to 10% from polyunsaturated fats (such as fats from fish).
Carbohydrates tend to have the greatest effect on blood glucose. The balance between the amount of carbohydrate eaten and the available insulin determines how much the blood glucose level goes up after meals or snacks. To help control blood glucose, people should watch how many carbohydrate servings they eat each day. Foods that contain a high amount of carbohydrates include grains, pasta, and rice; breads, crackers, and cereals; starchy vegetables, including potatoes, corn, peas, and winter squash; legumes such as beans, peas, and lentils; fruits and fruit juices; milk and yogurt; and sweets and desserts. Non-starchy vegetables, such as spinach, kale, broccoli, salad greens, and green beans, are very low in carbohydrates. Carbohydrate counting can ensure that the right amount of carbohydrate is eaten at each meal and snack. A dietitian can help each person work out a dietary plan that is right for them.
In addition, weight loss should be part of the plan for those with type 2 diabetes. Moderate weight loss (achieved by reducing calories by 250 to 500 per day and exercising regularly) controls not only blood sugars, but also blood pressure and cholesterol. People with diabetes who eat healthy, well-balanced diets do not need to take extra vitamins or minerals to treat their condition.
Exercise
Exercise plays an important role in both the prevention and management of diabetes because it lowers blood sugar and helps insulin work more efficiently in the body. Exercise also enhances cardiovascular fitness by improving blood flow and increasing the heart's pumping power, promoting weight loss and lowering blood pressure. However, exercise has the most value when it's done regularly, at least 3 to 4 sessions per week for 30 to 60 minutes per session. As little as 20 minutes of walking, 3 times a week, has a proven beneficial effect. People with type 2 diabetes who exercise regularly have been shown to lose weight and gain better control over their blood pressure, thereby reducing their risk for cardiovascular disease (a major complication of diabetes). Studies have also shown that people with type 1 diabetes who exercise regularly reduce their need for insulin injections.
Despite the benefits of exercise, many people have difficulty sticking with an exercise program for a long period of time. Health care providers can help develop suitable routines, as well as strategies that may improve adherence to such routines. Anyone with long-standing diabetes should have a thorough screening before starting an exercise program and receive careful monitoring from a doctor.
Medications
Medications for diabetes must always be used in combination with lifestyle changes, particularly diet and exercise, to improve the symptoms of diabetes. Medications include insulin, oral sulfonylureas (like glimepiride, glyburide, and tolazamide), biguanides (Metformin), alpha-glucosidase inhibitors (such as acarbose), thiazolidinediones (such as rosiglitazone) and meglitinides (including repaglinide and nateglinide). A new agent in the fight against diabetes, exenatide (Byetta), is an injectable drug that reduces the level of sugar (glucose) in the blood. In clinical studies, patients treated with exenatide achieved lower blood glucose levels and lost weight. Exenatide was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in May 2005. Several other agents are under investigation including sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors, G-protein-coupled receptor agonists, and the balanced dual perpexisome proliferator-activated receptor agents.
Nutrition and Dietary Supplements
Considerable research has been conducted on the relationship between diabetes and specific nutrients and dietary supplements. Dietary supplements may increase the effects of blood sugar-lowering medications, including insulin. When considering the use of supplements or making dietary changes, be sure to discuss these changes with your health care provider to ensure safety and appropriateness.
Supplements with Blood Sugar Lowering Effects
Chromium. Found in a variety of foods and supplements, including liver, brewer's yeast, cheese, meats, fish, fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, chromium appears to enhance the body's sensitivity to insulin. Researchers believe that chromium helps insulin pull glucose from the bloodstream into the cells for energy. The benefit of chromium supplements for diabetes has been studied and debated for years. While some studies show no beneficial effects of chromium use for people with diabetes, other studies have shown that chromium supplements may reduce blood glucose levels in individuals with type 2 diabetes and reduce the need for insulin in those with type 1 diabetes. Most Americans get at least 50 mcg of chromium in their diets each day. The National Research Council estimates that intakes of 50 to 200 mcg per day are safe and effective. Clinical studies showing improved blood sugar control for those with diabetes have used doses of chromium picolinate ranging from 200 to 1,000 mcg per day. However, until human studies of long-term safety are conducted with higher doses, it is best to use 200 mcg or less per day. Chromium may interact negatively with insulin and thyroid medicines. Speak with your doctor if you have a history of kidney or liver disease, or are being treated for a psychiatric disorder.
Magnesium. Several clinical studies have demonstrated a strong association between low levels of magnesium in the blood and type 2 diabetes. However, researchers are still unclear about the cause and effect in that association. They are investigating whether low magnesium levels worsen blood sugar control in people with type 2 diabetes or whether diabetes causes magnesium deficiencies. Some experts believe that low magnesium levels worsen blood sugar control and that foods rich in magnesium (such as whole grains, green leafy vegetables, bananas, legumes, nuts, and seeds) or magnesium supplements may promote healthy blood glucose levels. At least one small study suggests that taking magnesium supplements may improve the action of insulin and decrease blood sugar levels, particularly in the elderly. People with severe heart disease or kidney disease should not take magnesium supplements. People with diabetes should talk with their health care provider about whether it is safe and appropriate to take magnesium supplements. Magnesium can interact with some medications. Magnesium may lower blood pressure and cardiac output, and potentially interact with some cardiac medications. Excess magnesium can cause diarrhea.
Fiber. Studies suggest that a high-fiber diet may help:
In a large-scale study of nurses in the United States, women who consumed the most whole grain foods in their diets were nearly 40% less likely to develop diabetes than women who consumed the least. People with irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, or other digestive issues should speak with their doctor before adding fiber to their diet.
Studies have also shown that cholesterol levels improved in people with type 2 diabetes after they took supplements of a soluble fiber known as psyllium (Plantago psyllium).
Beta-glucan is a soluble fiber derived from the cell walls of algae, bacteria, fungi, yeast, and plants. It is commonly used for its cholesterol-lowering effects. There are several human trials supporting the use of beta-glucan for glycemic (blood sugar) control.
Vanadium. Vanadium is an essential trace mineral present in the soil and in many foods. It appears to mimic the action of insulin and, in a number of human studies, vanadyl sulfate (a form of vanadium) has increased insulin sensitivity in those with type 2 diabetes. Animal studies and some small human studies also suggest that vanadium may lower blood glucose to normal levels (reducing the need for insulin) in people with diabetes. One preliminary clinical study found that people with diabetes using insulin who were given vanadium were able to lower their dose of insulin. Vanadium may slow blood clotting, so people who take blood-thinning medication such as warfarin (Coumadin) and aspirin should check with their doctor before adding vanadium supplements to their regimen. People with a history of kidney issues should speak with their doctor before using vanadium supplements.
Melatonin. Melatonin is a natural hormone secreted in the brain. Studies link low melatonin secretion with an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Melatonin can cause sleepiness and potentially interact with some psychiatric medications and medications used to treat insomnia.
Antioxidants
Antioxidants such as beta-carotene and vitamin C are scavengers of free radicals, unstable and potentially damaging molecules generated by normal chemical reactions in the body. Free radicals are unstable because they lack one electron. In an attempt to replace this missing electron, the free radical molecules react with neighboring molecules in a process called oxidation. Some studies suggest that people with diabetes have elevated levels of free radicals and lower levels of antioxidants. Preliminary clinical studies show that the following antioxidants may improve diabetes (by returning blood glucose levels to the normal range) and reduce the risk of associated complications:
Two additional substances that show preliminary evidence to possibly help control blood sugar include:
Supplements with Cardiovascular Effects
Since insulin resistance is often associated with cardiovascular disease, people with diabetes may benefit from nutrients that help manage elevated blood lipid levels, high blood pressure, or heart failure. Although the following supplements have been shown to improve cardiovascular health, there is some concern that they may raise blood glucose levels, and they may interact with certain medications. People with diabetes interested in trying the following supplements should first consult with their health care providers:
Although clinical studies have not shown that either CoQ10 or omega-3 fatty acid supplements raise blood sugar levels, people with diabetes should discuss the safety and appropriateness of using these, or any supplements, with their health care provider or pharmacist, particularly if they are taking other medications. CoQ10 can potentially increase the clotting tendency of blood while omega-3 fatty acids can potentially decrease it. Niacin in certain amounts can potentially damage the liver. Work with your physician to find the types and amounts of supplements that are right for you.
In addition, the following antioxidants have been shown to improve cholesterol levels in people with type 2 diabetes. Work with your doctor to see if these are appropriate for you as they can potentially interact with other medications and may potentially worsen other medical conditions:
Several clinical studies have also found that elevated manganese levels may help protect against LDL oxidation (a process that contributes to the development of plaque in the arteries).
Herbs
People have long used plant-based medicines in the treatment of diabetes. For instance, the plant extract guanidine, which lowers blood glucose, prompted the development and use of biguanides, a commonly used oral medication for diabetes. Other herbs may have a role in the management or prevention of diabetes. Always talk to your health care provider about any herbs you consider using. Some herbs may interact with medications and some may lower your blood sugar. When combined with blood sugar-lowering medications, some herbs can bring your blood sugar to a dangerously low level.
Herbs that may have a role in the management or prevention of diabetes include:
Acupuncture
Some researchers speculate that acupuncture may trigger the release of natural painkillers and reduce the debilitating symptoms of a complication of diabetes known as neuropathy (nerve damage). In one clinical study of people with diabetes suffering from chronic, painful neuropathy, acupuncture reduced pain and improved sleep in 77% of the participants and eliminated the need for pain medications in 32% of the participants. Given these findings, acupuncture may be a reasonable option for people with diabetes who have neuropathy, and either find no symptom relief, or develop side effects from conventional drug treatment.
Mind-Body Medicine
Stressful life events can worsen diabetes in several ways. For example, stress stimulates the nervous and endocrine systems in ways that increase blood glucose levels and disrupt healthful behaviors (increasing the chances that an individual may consume excess calories and limit his or her physical activity, a pattern that leads to elevated blood glucose).
It makes sense then to consider stress management as part of the treatment and prevention of diabetes. Clinical studies have reported that people with diabetes who participate in biofeedback sessions (a technique that increases awareness and control of the body's response to stress) are more likely to reach target blood glucose levels than those who do not receive biofeedback. Although other studies have produced conflicting results, researchers and clinicians agree that long-term stress is likely to worsen diabetes and that biofeedback, tai chi, yoga, and other forms of relaxation may help motivate people with diabetes to change their habits to manage their condition.
Pregnancy
Women of child-bearing age who have diabetes should consult an endocrine specialist about the benefits of managing glucose levels before trying to conceive.
About 4% of all pregnant women in the United States are diagnosed with gestational diabetes. Risk factors for developing diabetes while pregnant include:
Normalizing glucose levels in women with gestational diabetes reduces their risk of complications, such as having an overweight baby, birth trauma, or the need for cesarean section. If the mother's glucose levels are uncontrolled, an infant can be stillborn or suffer from complications, including defects of the brain or central nervous system, an abnormally large body or organs, heart or kidney abnormalities, asphyxia, respiratory distress, and heart failure.
If dietary restrictions fail to improve glucose levels, a woman with gestational diabetes may need insulin. Women should not take oral diabetes medications during pregnancy. Women who develop gestational diabetes may experience the condition again in subsequent pregnancies. Gestational diabetes also increases the risk for developing type 2 diabetes later in life.
Depressive symptoms are associated with an increased risk of diabetes. The association cannot be explained by the use of antidepressant drugs or being overweight. Depression is an important risk factor for diabetes.
Prognosis and Complications
People who maintain tight control over their blood glucose levels can prevent or delay the development of long-term complications from diabetes. Type 1 diabetes generally has more complications than type 2 diabetes.
Long-term complications of diabetes may include:
Baker AM, Haeri S, Carmargo CA Jr, et al. First trimester maternal vitamin D status and risk for gestational diabetes mellitus: a nested case-control study. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2011. doi: 10.1002/dmrr.1282. [Epub ahead of print].
Baker H. Nutrition in the elderly: nutritional aspects of chronic diseases. Geriatrics. 2007;62(9):21-5.
Batty GD, Kivimaki M, Smith GD, Marmot MG, Shipley MJ. Obesity and overweight in relation to mortality in men with and without type 2 diabetes/impaired glucose tolerance: the original Whitehall Study. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(9):2388-91.
Bay R, Bay F. Combined therapy using acupressure therapy, hypnotherapy, and transcendental meditation versus placebo in type 2 diabetes. J Acupunct Meridian Stud. 2011;4(3):183-6.
Bo S, Ciccone G, Baldi C, et al., Effectiveness of a Lifestyle Intervention on Metabolic Syndrome. A Randomized Controlled Trial. J Gen Intern Med. 2007; [Epub ahead of print].
Bournival J, Francoeur MA, Renaud J, Martinoli MG. Quercetin and sesamin protecct neuronal PC12 cells from high-glucose-induced oxidation, nitrosative stress, and apoptosis. Rejuvenation Res. 2012;15(3):322-33.
Bozkurt O, de Boer A, Grobbee DE, et al. Pharmacogenetics of glucose-lowering drug treatment: a systematic review. Mol Diagn Ther. 2007;11(5):291-302.
Burt MS, Sultan MT. Ginger and its health claims: molecular aspects. [Review]. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2011;51(5):383-93.
Casellini CM, Vinik AI. Clinical manifestations and current treatment options for diabetic neuropathies. Endocr Pract. 2007;13(5):550-66.
Chen W, Zhang Y, Liu JP. Chinese herbal medicine for diabetic peripheral neuropathy. [Review]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(6):CD007796.
Diabetes Research in Children Network (DirecNet) Study Group, Buckingham B, Beck RW, Tamborlane WV, et al. Continuous glucose monitoring in children with type 1 diabetes. J Pediatr. 2007;151(4):388-93, 393.e1-2.
England L, Dietz P, Njoroge T, Callaghan W, Bruce C, Buus R, Williamson D. Preventing type 2 diabetes: public health implications for women with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus. Amer J of Obstet and Gyn. 2009;200(4).
Erdonmez D, Hautin S, Cizmecioglu, et al. No relationship between vitamin D status and insulin resistance in a group of high school students. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2011;3(4):198-201. doi: 10.4274/jcrpe.507.
Ferri: Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2016. 1st ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Mosby; 2015.
Furuya-Kanamori L, Stone JC, Doi SA. Putting the diabetes risk due to statins in perspective: a re-evaluation using the complementary outcome. Nutr metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2014;24(7):705-8.
Guthrie RM. Evolving therapeutic options for type 2 diabetes mellitus: an overview. Postgrad Med. 2012;124(6):82-9.
Herder C, Schneitler S, Rathmann W, et al. Low-Grade Inflammation, Obesity and Insulin Resistance in Adolescents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007; [Epub ahead of print].
Howes JB, Sullivan D, Lai N. The effects of dietary supplementation with isoflavones from red clover on the lipoprotein profiles of postmenopausal women with mild to moderate hypercholesterolemia. Atherosclerosis. 2000;152(1):143-7.
Hypponen E, Laara E, Reunanen A, Jarvelin MR, Virtanen SM. Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: a birth-cohort study. Lancet. 2001;358(9292):1500-3.
Kapoor R, Huang YS. Gamma linolenic acid: an antiinflammatory omega-6 fatty acid. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2006;7(6):531-4.
Khan A, Khattak K, Sadfar M, Anderson R, Khan M. Cinnamon improves glucose and lipids of people with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:3215-8.
Kim S, Shin BC, Lee MS, et al. Red ginseng for type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. [Review]. Chin J Integr Med. 2011;17(12):937-44.
Kim TH, Choi TY, Shin BC, et al. Moxibustion for managing type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review. [Review]. Chin J Integr Med. 2011;17(8):575-9.
Krauss RM, Eckel RH, Howard B, Appel LJ, Daniels SR, Deckelbaum RJ, et al. AHA Scientific Statement: AHA Dietary guidelines Revision 2000: A statement for healthcare professionals from the nutrition committee of the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2000;102(18):2284-99.
Kris-Etherton P, Eckel RH, Howard BV, St. Jeor S, Bazzare TL. AHA Science Advisory: Lyon Diet Heart Study. Benefits of a Mediterranean-style, National Cholesterol Education Program/American Heart Association Step I Dietary Pattern on Cardiovascular Disease. Circulation. 2001;103:1823.
Kurowska EM, Spence JD, Jordan J, Wetmore S, Freeman DJ, Piche LA, Serratore P. HDL-cholesterol-raising effect of orange juice in subjects with hypercholesterolemia. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72(5):1095-100.
Lee HJ, Chapa D, Kao CW, Jones D, Kapustin J, Smith J, Krichten C, Donner T, Thomas SA, Friedmann E. Depression, quality of life, and glycemic control in individuals with type 2 diabetes. J Am Acad Nurse Pract. 2009;21(4):214-24.
Liang F, Koya D. Acupuncture: is it effective for treatment of insulin resistance? Diabetes Obes Metab. 2010;12(7):555-59.
Malnick SD, Somin M. The VALIDD study. Lancet. 2007;370(9591):931; author reply 931-2.
Marz W, Wieland H. HMG-CoA reducatse inhibition: anti-inflammatory effects beyond lipid lowering. Herz. 2000;25(6):117-25.
McMullan CJ, Schernhammer ES, Rimm EB, Hu FB, Forman JP. Melatonin secretion and the incidence of type 2 diabetes. JAMA. 2013;309(13):1388-96.
Medagama AB, Bandara R. The use of complementary and alternative medicines (CAMs) in treatment of diabetes mellitus: is continued use safe and effective? Nutr J. 2014;13:102.
Mezuk B, Eaton WW, Albrecht S, Golden SH. Depression and type 2 diabetes over the lifespan: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. 2008;13(12):2383-90.
Mosdol A, Witte DR, Frost G, Marmot MG, Brunner EJ. Dietary glycemic index and glycemic load are associated with high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol at baseline but not with increased risk of diabetes in the Whitehall II study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86(4):988-94.
Murea M, Ma L, Freedman BI. Genetic and environmental factors associated with type 2 diabetes and diabetic vascular complications. Rev Diabet Stud. 2012;9(1):6-22.
Mutlu A, Mutlu GY, Ozsu E, et al. Vitamin D deficiency in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2011;3(4):179-83. doi: 10.4274/jcrpe.430.
National Cholesterol Education Program. Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA. 2001;285(19):2486-97.
Nutrition Committee of the American Heart Association. AHA Dietary Guidelines. Revision 2000: A Statement for Healthcare Professionals. Circulation. 2000;102:2284-99.
Pedersen BK. IL-6 signalling in exercise and disease. Biochem Soc Trans. 2007;35(Pt 5):1295-7.
Peek ME, Cargill A, Huang ES. Diabetes health disparities: a systematic review of health care interventions. Med Care Res Rev. 2007;64(5 Suppl):101S-56S.
Plat J, van Onselen ENM, van Heugten MMA, Mensink RP. Effects on serum lipids, lipoproteins, and fat soluble antioxidant concentrations of consumption frequency of margarines and shortenings enriched with plant stanol esters. Euro J Clin Nutr. 2000;54:671-7.
Raitakari OT, McCredie RJ, Witting P, Griffiths KA, Letter J, Sullivan D, Stocker R, Celermajer DS. Coenzyme Q improves LDL resistance to ex vivo oxidation but does not enhance endothelial function in hypercholesterolemic young adults. Free Radic Biol Med. 2000;28(7):1100-5.
Rawlings AM, Sharrett AR, Schneider AL, et al. Diabetes in midlife and cognitive change over 20 years: a cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2014;161(11):785-93.
Ripsin C, Kang H, Urban R. Management of Blood Glucose in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Am Fam Phys. 2009;79(1).
Rotella F, Mannucci E. Depression as a risk factor for diabetes: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74(1):31-7.
Sharma S, Agrawal RP, Choudhary M, et al. Beneficial effect of chromium supplementation on glucose, HbA1C, and lipid variables in individuals with newly onset type-2 diabetes. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2011;25(3):149-53.
Sjostrom L, Peltonen M, Jacobson P, et al. Association of bariatric surgery with long-term remission of type 2 diabetes and with microvascular and macrovascular complications. JAMA. 2014;311(22):2297-304.
Srivastava AK. Anti-diabetic and toxic effects of vanadium compounds. Mol Cell Biochem. 2000;206(1-2):177-82.
Stevinson C, Pittler MH, Ernst E. Garlic for treating hypercholesterolemia. Ann Intern Med. 2000;133(6):420-9.
Suksomboon N, Poolsup N, Boonkaew, et al. Meta-analysis of the effect of herbal supplement on glycemic control in type 2 diabetes. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137(3):1328-33.
Teixeira SR, Potter SM, Weigel R,Hannam S, Erdman Jr. JW, Hasler CM. Effects of feeding 4 levels of soy Protein for 3 and 6 wk on blood lipids and apolipoproteins in moderately hypercholesterolemic men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71:1077-84.
Tofler GH, Stec JJ, Stubbe I, Beadle J, Feng D, Lipinska I, Taylor A. The effect of vitamin C supplementation on coagulability and lipid levels in healthy male subjects. Thromb Res. 2000;100(1):35-41.
Tong Y, Guo H, Han B. Fifteen-day acupunccture treatment relieves diabetic peripheral neuropathy. J Acupunct Meridian Stud. 2010;3(2):95-103.
Willett WC. The role of dietary n-6 fatty acids in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown). 2007;8 Suppl 1:S42-5.
Xie W, Du L. Diabetes is an inflammatory disease: evidence from traditional Chinese medicines. [Review]. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2011;13(4):289-301. doi: 10.1111/j.1463-1326.2010.01336.x.
Yamada Y, Uchida J, Izumi H, et al. A non-calorie-restricted lowcarbohydrate diet is effective as an alternative therapy for patients with tpe 2 diabetes. Intern Med. 2014;53(1)13-9.
Zambón D, Sabate J, Munoz S, et al. Substituting walnuts for monounsaturated fat improves the serum lipid profile of hypercholesterolemic men and women. Ann Intern Med. 2000;132:538-46.
Zhang C, Ma YX, Yan Y. Clinical effects of acupuncture for diabetic peripheral neuropathy. J Tradit Chin Med. 2010;30(1):13-4.
Reviewed By: Steven D. Ehrlich, NMD, Solutions Acupuncture, a private practice specializing in complementary and alternative medicine, Phoenix, AZ. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by the A.D.A.M. Editorial team.
Learn more about A.D.A.M.'s editorial policy, editorial process and privacy policy. |
The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- 2024 A.D.A.M., a business unit of Ebix, Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.